Entrepreneurship und Tourismus

1. Introduction

1.1. The evolution of human communication

Humans have communicated for millions of years. Over time, we have invented tools and technology that have allowed us to make communication easier, faster, transportable and durable. Milestones of innovation include the invention of the written word, the printing press, the postal system, telephone, radio, TV, fax machine, Internet and email. This facilitated several types of communication: One-to-one, one-to-few, or one-to-many. Interactivity on this scale did not exist previously.

One-to-one (or one-to-few) types of communication include postal systems, the telephone and email. Initially expensive, the costs of these tools became affordable to many people and opened up the world. One-to-many communication has its roots in the invention of the book, which then became accelerated through the printing press. In the modern age, TV and radio also facilitate mass communication. One sender can reach millions at the same time. But printing and distributing books, as well as broadcasting, is expensive. It requires specialized tools and skills and is therefore only affordable to few. As a result, only a select group of people or companies have typically controlled the message that people received.

The Internet has then provided individuals with the ability to reach large audiences at a fraction of the cost compared to traditional media channels. Starting a website or blog requires little technical skill and can be done without cost. Anyone can be a publisher. This new freedom opened up the potential of mass communication from and to billions of individuals and organizations (Shirky, 2010).

Social media enables all types of conversations, including many-to-many communication, over different time zones and great distances. For the first time in history, people who are connected to the Internet can share thoughts and ideas with each other. And they do. Social media channels facilitate conversations and discussion on a global scale. It might seem trivial to discuss the latest hit movie with friends in four countries on Facebook or look up a Wikipedia article, but in the context of history, it can be regarded as a true revolution (Tapscott & Williams, 2010).

1.2. S. 288Social Media technologies

Figure 1: The Conversation Prism [Source: Solis, 2015]

S. 289Digital marketing analyst Solis’ (2015) conversation prism categorises these technologies in a visual representation of the social media landscape. The prism details the different applications of social media and the websites and technologies it supports.

Social media technologies, however, are only enablers. The true impact is the effect they have on the many aspects of a business and individual’s life. From instant messaging to photo sharing, from business networking to harnessing collective intelligence, innovation occurs fast and the applications are endless. Many social technologies are disrupting industries and organizations. Wikipedia, for example, disrupted the encyclopedia business. Similarly, crowd-sourced accommodations website Airbnb and ride-sharing company UBER present a threat to the hospitality and taxi industries. It is no wonder that hotels and taxi companies are lobbying for governments to stop these businesses from operating.

2. Impact on Marketing

2.1. Impact on travel brands

2.1.1. The disruption of marketing communication

Twenty years ago, access to information about tourism destinations and products was scarce. Before the Internet, sources such as mass media and advertising had a significant impact on inspiring consumers, and the brands themselves had most of the control. Media could be influenced and advertising could be purchased. In tourism, these information sources, including media, brochures, guide books and travel agents, were the primary sources of information to plan and book a holiday. Unless someone had a friend who had been to the same place, there was no possibility to validate the information provided; there was no other choice but to rely on the few sources of information that were available.

Today’s world is different. Social Media has given consumers the ability to inspire each other more frequently and more often, while information about almost anything is available everywhere and at all times on the Internet. The power and control of the organizations controlling mass media channels has now been put in the hands of everyday people. Any individual connected to the Internet has the ability to share whatever they have to say, whenever they want to say it, to a potentially global audience. This ability is also transforming the tourism industry.

2.1.2. The importance of word-of-mouth

Nielsen Global Trust in Advertising and Brand Messages (2012) found that 62 % of people in the US trust advertising on TV, while 68 % trust consumer opinions online and an even more impressive 84 % trust recommendations from people they know. People trust other people through word-of-mouth more than anything else. Gitelson and Crompton (1983) also identified word-of-mouth recommendation as the most important source of travel information. Similar research conducted by Google (2013) thirty later still shows similar results and highlights the importance of this information source.

S. 290Figure 2: Sources of travel information 1983 (Source: based on Gitelson & Crompton, 1983)

Figure 3: Sources of travel information 2013 (Source: based on Google, 2013)

Word-of-mouth was and still is the most powerful form of marketing in travel. People talk about their holidays, and people value the opinion of others when it comes to making decisions about where to go, what to do and where to eat.

Facebook currently has 1.49 billion monthly active users (Facebook, 2015) and the average US Facebook user has 338 friends (Pew Research, 2015). Someone’s post about their S. 291positive or negative experience with a product or service will reach many more people within personal circles, while the network effect of Facebook can increase this audience exponentially. Thus, word-of-mouth through social channels is just as impactful as in person. Research conducted by Facebook in the UK, Germany and Scandinavia concluded that 58 % of Facebook users say that friend’s and family’s experiences communicated through Facebook have inspired them to visit a place they have not been to previously.

Marketers have been faced with diminishing effectiveness from the importance they place on traditional channels, while struggling with the new media environment where they are no longer the only ones communicating and where people are responding, holding them accountable and relying on third party information that is impossible for businesses and organisations to control.

2.1.3. From advertising to advocacy

The promise and expectations set by brands through their communications need to meet the customer experience. When it meets or exceeds it, consumers will reward the brand with positive word-of-mouth in social media. But when it does not, the opposite effect can do serious damage to the brand. A bad product or experience often cannot be mitigated with more advertising. Review site TripAdvisor hosts 190 million traveller reviews and receives 315 million unique visitors to its website a month. It features the best and worst in travel. Many people will validate the information put forward by travel brands with the unbiased reviews from the TripAdvisor audience. This is one way social media channels hold travel brands accountable (Byng, 2015).

Travellers, armed with mobile devices, can thus be powerful brand advocates. The photos they take are often instantly shared with their circle of friends and beyond (Sparkler & Facebook, 2013). The “Iamsterdam” sign for example, is one of the most photographed landmarks in Amsterdam. Research conducted by Amsterdam Marketing and presented at the #SoMeT15EU conference found that 8,000 people photograph the sign every day, and 50 % of those people share this photo through a social channel, reaching approximately 1.2 million people per day. It would be very expensive to buy that kind of exposure with advertising.

The bottom line is that the volume of social media conversations generated by visitors, combined with its influence over others, is driving the modern travel decision-making process.

2.1.4. Advocacy starts with the tourism experience

When word-of-mouth is so important, it means that the experience visitors have on-site is equally important. It is the experience that people share with others through stories they tell. A visit to the Louvre is an experience, so is a stay in a hotel and a flight on an airplane. But the process of purchasing the airline ticket is also an experience, as is the interaction with the check-in counter at the airport. The quality of the experience will determine if the story to be told is a good one or a bad one (Destination Marketing AsS. 292sociation International, 2014). How many times have you seen or heard someone complain about a bad customer service experience?

The conclusion is obvious: deliver the right experience and customers will share positive stories. TripAdvisor reviews will be positive. Photos on Facebook will contain smiling faces. Stories people tell each other will be inspiring. The next traveller could be motivated.

2.1.5. Activating advocacy

2.1.5.1. Consumer advocacy

Social media stories people tell each other can be more motivational than anything else. And the total volume of stories people tell each other are massive in numbers. When the stories are right, consumers will be a brand’s best marketing team. Delivering a quality experience is thus key and the foundation for success. But doing everything right does not guarantee that the experience results in a review or a story shared. Getting people to take out their phone and share that photo often requires something more – giving customers a reason to share their experience is important.

Author and marketer Seth Godin (2009) describes this principle by using the word “remarkable”, because activating word-of-mouth requires doing something that stands out, doing something that is worth making a remark about. Sometimes experiences are remarkable on their own. Most people visiting Paris will probably take and share their photo in front of the Eiffel tower on their social channels. It is remarkable by reputation. In other instances, experiences need to be designed for sharing, and a small tweak can have a massive impact. After the Fargo-Moorhead Convention and Visitors Bureau bought the original wood-chipper from the hit movie Fargo and put it in their visitor centre, movie fans from all around the world came to have their picture taken.

2.1.5.2. Influencer advocacy

Consumer advocacy through social media is the Internet’s version of word-of-mouth. And just like there is an online version for word-of-mouth, there is an online version for traditional PR as well. Encouraging journalists to tell stories about a tourism product or destination generates earned media. Traditionally, earned media was generated through broadcast media channels such as TV, radio and magazines. Just like in advertising, the number of players was limited, and publishers and broadcasters reached a sizable audience.

What was a relatively manageable landscape of big media companies and professional journalists has all of a sudden been augmented by a legion of new players. After all, anyone can be a publisher, and millions are using the opportunity. When these publishers reach a sizable audience or carry more influence than the average person, they can be a powerful source for PR as well (Peltier, 2014; Shankman, 2015a, 2015b).

Beginning with bloggers who shared their stories on their own personal websites, influencers have exponentially grown and now include vloggers (video), Instagram-only S. 293photographers, live-stream Periscopers and many more. Many are amateurs and most have a small audience. But some have a sizeable number of followers or a heavy influence over their audience, with a few having both (Saltzstein, 2013). These influencers often cover a specific slice of society and their audience typically rallies around a common interest, passion or lifestyle. This makes working with influencers extremely interesting since they can deliver a credible message to exactly the right audience, whereas broadcast media often delivers a generic message to a generic audience. Often, a message to thousands who are passionate, instead of hundreds of thousands within a general audience can easily produce better results.

2.1.5.3. Local advocacy

Advocacy can come from all areas. Most people are proud of the place in which they live and this can result in powerful advocacy on behalf of a tourism destination. In addition, locals are often considered more credible because they are unbiased and know the destination better than anyone else. In social media, it is the locals who can assist visitors in their trip planning or share inspiring images.

2.1.6. Social customer care

Social Media has become an important customer service channel. Consumers shift away from the phone or brick-and-mortar visitor centres and gravitate towards the Internet and social media channels to voice their questions and complaints, directly or indirectly.

Leading travel brands such as KLM have made social customer care a priority and have created dedicated social media care teams. These brands monitor social media on an ongoing basis for customer mentions of their brand to find customer leads, questions and challenges (McCulloch, 2015). By responding quickly and efficiently to customer enquiries, they add value, mitigate challenges and close sales. Customers can either contact brands direct by tagging them on Twitter or post an enquiry on Facebook.

2.2. Niche marketing

The Internet and social media channels also provide endless targeting opportunities through niche online communities.

2.2.1. Niche communities

Every person has unique interests or passions. Often, these interests can be powerful travel motivators. A sports fan will travel the world to follow his or her sports team, whereas a marathon runner will run races in different cities every year. People gather online to discuss these personal interests. There are niche communities for almost everything; no matter how obscure the interest, there is an online community where like-minded people gather around it. For example, there are thousands of adult fans of the children’s animate series, My Little Pony. These people call themselves “Bronies”, organize conferences, run blogs, Facebook pages and gather online at ponychan.net.

S. 294For tourism marketers who tailor their efforts to specific niches, it is possible to find the places an audience resides, then learn and understand this audience in order to optimize marketing (and in some cases, even product delivery) (Oates, 2014). For example, a tourism operator or destination that targets kite surfers should listen to the conversations on need2kite.com, an online community created just for kite surfers. Anything related to kite-surfing is discussed here, including the best places to go surfing.

Every niche community has its own influencers, too. These are the people who carry a certain status in a community that gives them more authority. Often this status also results in a large audience of followers, based upon influencers who are running their own blogs, YouTube channels, Instagram accounts and more.

2.2.2. Niche advocacy

It is frequently easier to get a person to share stories about their passions and interests. Finishing a marathon, for example, is a large accomplishment and people will share it with their friends on social channels and peers in the running community. For a tourism destination or operator, understanding the niche audiences that visit and tailor the experience to that audience will create a better experience for guests and encourage positive word-of-mouth in that community (Oates, 2014).

2.2.3. Niche targeting

Many social channels collect information explicitly or implicitly from their users. It is easy to target people with a specific demographic-, geographic- or interest-based profile. If you hope to reach skiers in Paris, social channels like Facebook now provide marketers with the ability to pinpoint their message, allowing for a message that is highly tailored to these individuals and their interests.

2.3. Social Media marketing

Brands, of course, also participate via social media channels. It is a very different environment compared traditional channels – being social means entering into a two-way conversation, where building relationships and being part of a community is essential. And because most social media conversations are held out in the open, a brand’s communication to a single individual can still have a massive impact on a much larger audience that happens to be listening in.

2.3.1. Social Networks

The most common place that brands engage are social networks like Facebook, Instagram or Twitter. The benefit of starting a Facebook page or Instagram channel lies in joining a place where millions of people already gather – in other words, fish where the fish are. The most popular social media channels in the Western world are Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Pinterest and YouTube (Statistica, 2015). In some countries, local social channels still carry a lot of influence. For the tourism industry, additional channels S. 295including TripAdvisor and Yelp are important. Of course there are country- and niche-specific social networks, too, which can be relevant for specific travel brands.

The downside of joining social networks is the fact that companies are at the mercy of the owners of the network. Facebook, for example, is known for changing its rules frequently, sometimes impacting the previous efforts made by the page’s owner.

2.3.2. Branded communities

A branded community is a social network specifically created by a brand. The benefits of a branded community are having control over the gathering place for the community. The challenge, however, is how to acquire members and retain them. There needs to be a benefit for people to begin – and continue – participation. A branded community often requires a very loyal customer base that feels invested in the business, a sort of “fan-base”. Disney is a company with a large fan-base and a strong online community. There are legions of Disney blogs and website, and Disney operates its own community of family-oriented bloggers so that it can learn, get input and ideas from its strongest supporters in their target audience.

2.3.3. Content Marketing

Managing social media channels is often part of a content marketing strategy where content is used strategically to attract and retain a target audience by focusing on creating and distributing valuable, relevant, and consistent content to meet specific objectives. Managing social channels should not be looked at in isolation. Content marketing integrates different channels such as websites, blogs, email and social channels in order to re-enforce the message in each channel and collectively impact consumers along their path to purchase.

Many brands are complementing their own content and communications efforts with user-generated content (UGC). This is content that is not produced by a brand, but by its advocates. In some cases, a brand will only use user-generated content. Tourism Australia, for example, has the largest Facebook page of any destination marketing organisation in the world, and almost exclusively uses photos submitted by its fans.

2.3.4. Advertising

Most social networks offer advertising opportunities to brands, often with laser-focused targeting opportunities, allowing brands to get a relevant message to a very specific audience. This often makes advertising on social media channels a cost-efficient option, especially when targeting niche audiences.

Social channels are also incorporating “re-marketing” in their advertising product, where users can be tagged through cookies and shown follow-up advertising. Just like content marketing, social media advertising is becoming part of an integrated digital marketing strategy.

3. S. 296Conclusion

In a very short period of time, social media has impacted virtually every aspect of tourism marketing, from the product itself, customer engagement and promotional activities. The rules of marketing are being re-written in the favour of the consumer. This is good news, because tourism professionals sometimes forget what travel is about. It is about delivering an experience that takes away the anxieties of travel and makes memories for our guests. Social media helps to hold people, businesses and brands accountable, while providing marketers with an opportunity to be more relevant and customer-centred in their communications.